Bullying And The Victim And Understanding The Issues Essay

Bullying how to Protect the Victim and Understanding the Issues Rikkie Oree Johnson Way PSYC3520 Intro to Social Psychology Unit 9 Assignment 1 Capella University December ,2016 Stopping Victimology while Educating Others When interacting in a group environment what makes some individuals more prone to bullying behavior and others more likely to be the victim? These terms and actions once defined and understood can be itemized to break down the cycle of bullying. Understanding the root causes of bullying and what behaviors define bullying is a good first step in educating individuals not only what defines a bully but what steps can be taken to diminish bullying behavior and what can be done to protect a reduce the damage done to the victims of bullies. If we can identify the factors that go into creating a bully and the traits that victims share, then by education there can be a lessening of both in society. This education needs to start at a young age and can help to lessen the occurrence. Bullying Definition When looking, at what makes a bully and what makes a victim finding the actions and events that make these labels fit to an individual is a process Bullying can come in several different forms, it can be a power imbalance that is created between two individuals the victim and the aggressor or the bully, this power imbalance is real or supposed (Olweus, 1993). According to research done by Olweus, â€Å"A person is the target of bullyingShow MoreRelatedCurrently There Is A Growing Awareness Of The Prevalence1558 Words   |  7 Pagesawareness of the prevalence of bullying and how this serious issue significantly impacts a substantial amount of adolescents worldwide. Bullying is the repeated victimization of an individual by intentional physical or verbal abuse, exploitation and exclusion, within a context in which there is an imbalance of power (Hoffnung, 2015). Olweus (1995), a bullying phenomenon researcher, estimates that 10% of children and adolescents between the ages of 7 to 16 years’ experience bullying. Subsequently, HoffnungRead MoreEssay on Cyber Bullying Annotated Bibliography1013 Words   |  5 Pagesinternet dose to the youth. With two main points; cyber bullying and sexting, the author briefly discusses what they are and what threat that occurs from them. The article is useful to me because it shows the harmfulness on what could happen on the internet. However, this article is very vague and lakes a certain amount of information to achieve its point. Cyber Bullying Crackdown: Recent Tragedies And A New Survey Shine A Spotlight On Online Bullying. Current Events, a Weekly Reader publication 17Read MoreA Research Study On Bullies And Victims1301 Words   |  6 PagesAbstract This research paper entails of three different studies of bullies and victims. The three researches are quantitative research, qualitative research and meta-analysis study. Quantitative research was conducted by Pister (2004) with seventh and eighth grades students. Pister (2004) try to find an understanding the process of bullying by speaking with the youth. Qualitative research was done by Haggas (2006). Haggas (2006) created Bully Prevention Challenge Course Curriculum (BPCCC)Read MoreEffects Of Bullying Essay1152 Words   |  5 Pages Effects of Bullying Bullying is a serious issue in today’s society. It can affect the well-being of the offender, bystander, and target. It can happen almost anywhere and anytime in privacy, in schools, at places of employment, and even in neighborhoods. Bullying can be classified as being physical, emotional, verbal or social which known as cyber bullying. There are various types of bullying experienced in schools among the students like: teasing, taunting, threatening, hitting, spittingRead MoreWhy Some Schools Don t Have Bullies Article Essay1329 Words   |  6 Pagesarticle focus on finding solutions to eradicate bullying. Bullying is repeated acts of unwanted aggression and abuse of power that take a wide variety of forms. Some of the forms of bullying are physical and verbal aggression which can be categorized as direct or indirect behavior. When direct physical bullying occurs, it will involve someone being attacked physically through punching, kicking and stomping, whereas when indirect physically bullying occurs, it will involve someone being excluded fromRead MoreBullying : Definition, Risk Factors, And Impacts1314 Words   |  6 Pages Bullying in Schools: Definition, Risk Factors, Impacts Theresa Marie Fox EDST 1002 Spring 2015 Bullying in Schools: Definition, Risk Factors, Impacts Over the past few decades, bullying has become a highly significant issue in schools across the globe. In the United States alone, it is estimated that approximately one in three children are victims of bullying (Smokowski Kopasz, 2005). Although bullying affects nearly 70 percent of all students, it is usuallyRead MoreThe Aggressive Behavior Of Male Students851 Words   |  4 PagesDan Olweus (1978) spearheaded academic discourse on bullying. Olweus approached bullying as a theoretical tool to understand the aggressive behaviour of male students. The research the pioneered Olweus’ model of school bullying focused on understanding individual behaviour in light of aggressive personality. Research informed by this early model of school bullying works on the premise that bullying is an expression of individual aggression (Hawley Williford, 2014). The behaviour manifests in responseRead MoreNegative Effects Of Bullying1188 Words   |  5 Pages Bullying is a serious issue in today’s society. It can affect the well-being of the offender, bystander, and target. It can happen almost anywhere and anytime in privacy, in schools, at places of employment, and even in neighborhoods. Bullying can be classified as being physical, emotional, verbal or social which known as cyber bullying. There are various types of bullying experienced in schools among the students like: teasing, taunting, threatening, hitting, spitting, and embarrassing othersRead MoreBullying Is A Massive Issue Around The World Essay1390 Words   |  6 PagesBullying essay for US 22750 Bullying is a massive issues around the world. In our communities and especially in our schools. As a community we need to understand the meaning of bullying, what is the definition of bullying? The different types of bullying, understanding exactly what action causes bullying to be defined as bullying. Understanding the concept of bullying is important to try and understand what the victims had to endure and struggle through and the consequences of being bullied. BecauseRead MoreResearch On Bullying And Bullying793 Words   |  4 Pagesor cyber bullying, defined as â€Å"willful and repeated harm inflicted through the medium of electronic text,† can also harm children and teens (Hinduja Patchin, n.d)†¦ Cyber bullies harass their victims by posting insults, taunts, threats, or slanderous statements on the Internet or by directly sending them to their victims through digital communication like email, text messaging, and instant messaging (Young, Young, Fullwood, 2007). According to Purdy, E.R. (2014) research on bullying suggest that

Sensation And Perception Have Different Roles - 872 Words

Sensation and perception have different roles in how we understand our world. The sensation is the process of sensing our environment through touch, taste, sight, sound, and smell. The information is sent to our brain, where perception takes over. â€Å"Sensation is the process of receiving, translating and transmitting raw sensory information from the external and internal environments of the brain.† (Discovering Psychology 1) Perception is the way we interpret these sensations and make sense of everything around us. Perception is our way of making contact with our environment. â€Å"Perception is the process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting sensory data.† (Discovering Psychology 1) Psychophysics is comparing events with our psychological experience with them. â€Å"For example, through sensation the ears report information about sound waves to the brain, and through perception we hear the music.† (Hargrove 1) We see an object or a person; we check them out than the environment and everything else. We use our experience to analyze each situation and decide if it’s logical or not. Without sensation, the perception will not be possible and without perception, our sensations would remain to be unfamiliar. The sense of touch includes pressure, pain, cold, and warmth. Kinesthesis is the sense of the position and movement of body parts. The sense of balance gives information about where the body. Taste occurs when chemicals excite receptors in the tongue and throat.Show MoreRelatedDescription of The Psychology of Action1298 Words   |  6 Pagesperson behavior is normally shaped by past experiences, culture, education or genes. Hence intuition is not an adequate means by which one can assess the behavioral pattern of an individual. Scholars, over the years, have explored this phenomenon of what influences our behavior and have shown that intuition is not adequate enough to explain behavior. In this paper, discussion will surround factors that explain the causes of behavior which are exhibited on a daily basis. According to Merriam WebsterRead MoreThe Effects Of Sensory Information On The Brain Essay1370 Words   |  6 Pagesa specific purpose for integration, which have complex functions of their own, each part of the brain interacts with one another in complex ways that contribute to the integration of sensory information to the reality we are all so familiar with (Eagleman, 2015a). As explained by Doctor David Eagleman (2015a), the brain is like a city. There is no true single place that reality could be said to exist in the mind. Just as in a city, there are many different parts that make up the whole (Eagleman, 2015a)Read MoreThe Theory Of Perception Of The Existence Of God1520 Words   |  7 PagesKnowledge, Berkeley posits the doctrine of idealism largely in response to the theory of perception connected to representationalism. While the representationalist would agree that only sensory ideas can be immediately perceived, Berkeley s view dramatically differs from representationalis m in that he denies the existence of material objects and, consequently, the causal role they are presumed to hold in producing sensations (Heide 15 Sept). Berkeley takes this immaterialist position to undoubtedly proveRead MoreThe Neurotransmitter Of A Motor Disorder1026 Words   |  5 Pages There are many different neurotransmitters that can be described in this unit but I will only be discussing four. The first Neurotransmitter which is located near the cortex, spinal cord, and target organs is activated by the parasympathetic nervous system which is called Acetylcholine (ACh). It was the first neurotransmitter discovered. This neurotransmitter was released from motor neurons to muscle fibers to make them bond. It affects learning and memory in the brain. A behavior that it can causeRead MoreUnderstanding Sensation As A Process957 Words   |  4 PagesUnderstanding sensation as a process where physical stimuli or feeling sent from sensory organs to our brain, I could relate t he information of module 5 with my everyday experience. Learning the principal methods of operation of audition, vision, touch, taste and smell help me to obtain a deeper knowledge about our sensory organs and their interaction with stimuli, sensors, and our brain. Also, I gained a more valuable understanding of placebo effects and their implications in mental processes. IRead MorePerception And Perception Of Perception1154 Words   |  5 PagesTo know how perception interacts with the brain to create reality we first have to better understand perception. Perception is the active process of selecting, organizing, and interpreting the information brought to the brain by the senses. Perception is an important part of creating reality because, your reality is determined by your memories, beliefs, culture, life experiences, as well as your senses and perception. Although sensation and perception work together to help create our reality theyRead MoreThe Work of James Jerome Gibson1073 W ords   |  5 PagesI. Brief biography1 James Jerome Gibson was born on January 27, 1904, in McConnelsville, Ohio, U.S. and died on December 11, 1979. He was an experimental psychologist whose work focused primarily on visual perception. He received his Ph.D. in Psychology from Princeton University in 1928 and joined the faculty of Smith College. During World War II he served in the Army Air Forces (1942–46). In the Army, Gibson developed tests used to screen potential pilots. In doing so, he made the observation thatRead MoreThe Theory And Identity Theory, And Deal With The Multiple Realisability Argument1690 Words   |  7 Pagesexcitation is the mental state of pain (Schneider). Lewis and Armstrong emphasised the causal role in relation to type identity theory. Holding the view that humans are nothing more than mechanisms of chemical and neural reactions (Schneider). Where causal roles are characterised by experiences. This same cause and effect relationship also describes physical brain states. Therefore since both possess causal roles, physical states must also be experiences (Smart, 2007). Lewis’s theory allowed for holismRead MoreBertrand Russell on Analytical Philsophy Essay example1129 Words   |  5 Pagesnothing wrong with college-aged adults having childless encounters before marriage, but still held that marriage is the best and most important relation that can exist between human beings . It seems that Russells theories on marriage and sex may have caused the protest that led to be him being dismissed after an appointment to City College in New York City. Russell, along with his fellow Cambridge alumnus G. E. Moore, were at the forefront of the philosophical movement leading towards analyticalRead MoreHuman Imaginations based on Philosophers Essay1346 Words   |  6 PagesThe imagination is a tricky facet of the human mind for the philosopher. Each philosopher seems to have his own definitions of what the senses and the human imagination actually are, and the role th at each plays in the development and everyday existence of man. Plato errs on the side of shunning the arts and the imaginative in the Republic. Others like Aristotle and Hobbes are more welcoming, treating the imagination as a facet, or a close relative of the memory. Despite the varying opinions, one

Business Accounting and Finance Statements

Question: Discuss about the Business Accounting and Financial Statements. Answer: 1. Part a The scenario states that Ayesha and Dilara have been running a winery which has been inherited by them from their grandfather. The company makes wines to sell at a profit to different markets whereas both the girls have decided on mutual consensus that they would be running this company according for lifetime of profit variability. The concerning question about the type of business which is being done by both these girls have agreed upon can be defined upon a number of factors which promulgate and adjudicate the existence of a partnership between them. The Partnership act of 1932 defines different parameters of the company and states indicators which show that if the following things are being done than this formally abides the parties inside a legal bond by law. The partners have a mutual consent and share in the profits of the Business which are either calculated on a yearly basis or monthly depending on the Businesss terminology and legislatures. The partners or the entities are held liable if in any case the business suffers a case of loss of income or capital. The partners are liable to the business rules and all employees hired in the business for its conduction Every partner and the person involved in the business has the right to make decision for either the betterment or expansion If in cases of contradiction arises according to the Partnership Act 1932 than the held contradiction should be decided on the basis of votes between all partners and ruling should be done in the favor of the majority (Rimmer 2016). According to the entire business scenario provided in the given statements, all of these qualities between the two girls have been fulfilled to some extent and the situation has made it obvious that the further formalities which define partners would also be fulfilled. Part B The scenario has stated that the winery business has incurred a loss over the years because of the less experience of both the girls operating the winery and whereas the prevalent physical conditions of the winery have made it less appealing to their clients. The current business model is running on the 1 of 3 types of business and the only solution which can be made is that the some part of the company should be sold off to Polart. When the company would be sold off to Polart, the business would still be running on the ambit of a partnership because Polart would also be considered as an owner of the winery. There are different reasons to choose this model instead of giving Polart the complete proprietorship of the business which would be done in the scenario of the winery is completely sold off to the French wine maker. According to the Partnership Act of 1932, Chapter 3, Section 13 Mutual Rights subsection A, the partners which have been involved in the company would be held accountable for both profits and the loss which the company bears, which makes Polart an equal representative in the company for any reason his expert wine making skills prove to be insufficient to the business and hence brings variable loss (Rashid et al. 2012). According to the Partnership Act of 1932, Chapter 3, Section 13, Subsection D states that any partner which has been made in the business for the purpose of expansion of the business which actually fits in this scenario is entitled to receive an estimated interests of more than 6 percent of which the company earns at a yearly rate which is completely separate of the amount which the partner has made in the company in the form of capital (Loewenstein 2016). The above stated reasons and laws simply are enough justifications to why both girls need Polart in their business, because his expertise would not only bring in more clients to the company but the capital provided by him can be used to expand the winery and expand the production of the winery with better facilitations which would on an economic cycle bring in more revenues for the company than the existing state. 2. The overall scenario can be broken down under the situation of a company and how the hierarchy of the company basically operates in different forms. The boards of directors in the company are legal vectors and are primarily responsible for making valid decisions for the company. The process of involving different share holders in the company is said to increase not only the business revenue of the company but also give the shareholders a chance to earn more money because they have been entitled by the Companys Ordinance 1984 to be at a position of where they own different stakes and part of that company by purchasing the shares and hence by law have the right to make different claims when they feel too. The description of the situation has shown that how Leo has attained shares which are in total of 2 in a company which develops trains for local stores and other clients. The total price for which the shareholder has purchased the stocks quickly adds up to around 500,000$, the scen ario however later on explains the situation where the company finally mounts up the profit of 300 percent in the same year when Leo has purchased the stocks. However according to the rights of share holders under the Companies Ordinance 1984, titled Share Capital, Chapter 11, Section 108 which entitles the board of directors to pay off different preset dividends to the share holders from different amounts of the profit, which in the scenario have not been paid by the Official acting board of directors (Goo 2013). The Shareholder rights have not been specified in the ordinance but according to the objectives of moral grounds the following rights are held by Leo in this case Since Leo owns a different amount of stocks in the company and has not been appointed as the official Executive director, he only has the power of voting against or in favor of different terms which are proposed in the meetings of the company. His voting rights also include the written commitments and the oral proxy voting which can be done even when he is not physically present in the meetings The right to receive different amounts of dividends from the company depending on the annual profit income for the company at a preset rate (Dahlan et al. 2014). However these specific rights have been present to Leo there are different limitations which prevent him from taking legal actions if his share of the profit has not been made. The first limitation is that the board of directors can choose to either invest the profit back into the company or remove the dividends provisions by returning only a small amount of profit to the necessary or larger stake holders instead of small ones. The second limitation by Law Of Ordinance under the act of 1984 prevents Leo from filing a law suit against the company because it only allows the share holders which have almost 75% stakes in the company or an amount of vote which compiles up to around of the total votes in the official meetings (Glenn 2014). This can be calculated to how much Leo actually owns by considering the amount of shares cost he bought which are an estimated of 500,000$. The company annual profit has been shown to be around 300% and thus the annual profit can be multiplied with the total cost of Leos share (500000*300/100) to reveal the total amount of profit earned. This total amount is then divided by the amount of share Leo has purchased to reveal his percentage in the company which is calculated by (500000/1500000). The total percentage which has been calculate by all these considerations is that Leo owns only a 33% percent of the companys share and hence he has no legal obligation to sue the company. His only motivation to support at this time because he has been removed from the board by the official directors is to convince the board. 3. The boards of directors of the company have been identified as by the Corporations act of 2001 in Australia and the common wealth law of Australia to be entirely obligated towards the companys benefit and sustainable revenue generation of the company. The shareholders of the company are essentially responsible for making the company run on smooth levels and hence provide different reason in the annual board meeting if any of the directors have failed to fully execute their duties. The case which has been stated above has showed the company has two executive directors and one who is not an executive director of the company. However whenever there are meetings the CFO is entirely relied upon to present different financial statements to the boards which show all of the companys earnings and their profits gain and loss. This particular situation has depicted that the CFO has shown mismanagement in terms of violating the code of conduct of the company and the Corporation act of Austral ia under the complete ambit of law and therefore is entitled to be subjected towards different penalties. The CFO presented different statements which showed that the company was actually on the verge of earning more revenues instead of having different finances and hence which can make the investors and the entire panel on the meeting to decide and pay off more budget so that more profits could be expected. After few months it was found that the company was now in a position that it had no capital and revenues to pay off for all the loss they had been bearing of the few months. The Application of the Law The corporation act of 2001, Section 180 states that the board of directors and different people responsible for the decision making of the company are legally entitled to make the best decision for the company and should over look for each and every one of their decisions so that it does put a strain on their powers and exercises their power in good faith (Christensen et al. 2013). The corporation Act Section 181 also incorporated the laws that the board of directors is responsible for all the judgments which are resulted in the best policy making for the company. These judgments in the past have also been explained by different researches and marketing executives that the directors of the company are legally entitled not to have any kind of personal interest in any of their proposed judgment. The section 183 of the corporation act also depict that the directors must never benefit personally from any of the proposed policy and hence should not have outside interests in any of the in vestment plans of the company (Brochet et al. 2013). All of these premises have set out different standards and sets of responsibilities for the directors in the company as they have the right to be civic about each and every one of their powers and actions. The General Application The Australian penal code and the common wealth law Section 4 B states that the directors which are found in the direct breach of all the above made premises in the Corporation Act are than to be charged with criminal liabilities and hence in different cases the directors are often offered to pay the charges which have been compiled by the company CFO as the offence and shows loss in the company. In this current scenario the companys CFO would be entitled to different criminal charges because of wrong execution of his powers and presenting false documents which caused bad judgment to the companys finances and hence the company has to be on the verge of bankruptcy. Conclusion The above made premise helps the other directors and the non executive directors to completely understand their legal position in this matter and hence caused a legal notice to the CFO. 4. The policy behind this simple concept is the simple interest of basic barter because an auditor is usually appointed by the companies in order to make official reports of the company and verify that the company has paid all its liable taxes to the government organizations and hence this makes the auditor to be completely attached to the client company regardless of any other third party which has been attached to the company as well. The basic policy which can be laid down in this reference is also because the auditor is usually paid by the company to do his work (Aust 2013). This makes the company to become more transparent in front of all its legal stake holders and creditors and hence the company operates in a way which makes it viable for the auditor to work and make financial statements and the company operates to make their share holders happy by providing benefits. Third Party Proving According to the different International accounting standards (IAS) under the ambit of International financial reporting standards (IFRS) has narrated and influential prescription that the financial statements of the company have to be disclosed. The third party usually involves different people who can act out against the auditors; these third parties usually consist of different governmental agencies, creditors, stake holders. The common terminology where these third parties can prove that the auditors have made different mistakes by the grounds of either mathematic inconsistency, transaction errors which often make the question on their validity which also incorporates their invoices (Ahmed et al. 2013). The different tactics which can be used by the parities is the comparison between different liabilities and assets of the owned company in the previous years and the current years where the company has been operating. There are other different means which can also show the mistake s of the auditors is the collusive amounts of irregular transactions and these are often found on the auditors report and done to either hide different fraud or just the auditors mistakes. Agree or Disagree I strongly disagree with this particular concept because there are many other institutions and compliances of laws which are on the shoulders of the auditors and he has to put in maximum abidance of all these laws which are regulated by SEC which is known as Security Exchange Commissions. The third parties which often have influence on the auditors can often manipulate the different reports and financial statements as these reports are the official promulgation of showing how the company has been operating and when these reports are presented to other stake holders of the company this could leave an array of mistrust on both the company and the auditing profession in all because of fake documents (Aulakh Kirkpatrick 2016). According to different assurance standards, the information which contains finances of a different entity, which is examined by different vies, the particular view which is preferred is that the report should only be in its true and fair form and should be always efficient and productive towards its original purposes. These are the reasons which have compelled me with the culture of third party and first party manipulations and influences on the auditors to make them change and manipulate their work. References Ahmed, A.S., Neel, M. and Wang, D., 2013. Does mandatory adoption of IFRS improve accounting quality? Preliminary evidence.Contemporary Accounting Research,30(4), pp.1344-1372. Aulakh, S. and Kirkpatrick, I., 2016. Changing regulation and the future of the professional partnership: the case of the Legal Services Act, 2007 in England and Wales.International Journal of the Legal Profession, pp.1-27. Aust, A., 2013.Modern treaty law and practice. Cambridge University Press. Brochet, F., Jagolinzer, A.D. and Riedl, E.J., 2013. Mandatory IFRS adoption and financial statement comparability.Contemporary Accounting Research,30(4), pp.1373-1400. Christensen, H.B., Hail, L. and Leuz, C., 2013. Mandatory IFRS reporting and changes in enforcement.Journal of Accounting and Economics,56(2), pp.147-177. Dahlan, M., Hilal, N., Jalil, A., Zafarullah, A., Zainol, Z. and Maamor, S., 2014. Legal issues in partnership law concerning musharakah al-mutanaqisah practised by Islamic financial institutions in Malaysia. Glenn, H.P., 2014.Legal traditions of the world: Sustainable diversity in law. Oxford University Press (UK). Goo, S.H., 2013. Perspectives on the new Companies Ordinance. InHKCU CFREDs 3rd Company Law Colloquium 2013. Loewenstein, M., 2016. Equity and Corporate Law.Available at SSRN 2746190. Rashid, H.A., Amin, F. and Farooqui, A., 2012. International financial reporting standards (ifrs) and its influence on pakistan.Journal of Applied Finance and Banking,2(2), p.1. Rimmer, M., 2016. The Trans-Pacific Partnership: New Zealand, Indigenous Intellectual Property, and the Treaty of Waitangi.Edward Elgar Blog.

The Indian Constitution free essay sample

To ensure constitutional autochthony, the constitutional framers inserted Article 395 in the constitution and by this Article the Indian Independence Act, 1947 was repealed. [3] The Constitution declares India to be a sovereign, socialist, secular, democratic republic, assuring its citizens of justice, equality, and liberty, and endeavors to promote fraternity among them. [4] The words socialist and secular were added to the definition in 1976 by constitutional amendment(mini constitution). [5] India celebrates the adoption of the constitution on 26 January each year as Republic Day. 6] It follows the Parliamentary System of government with a Constitutional head. Background [edit] Main article: Indian independence movement The major portion of the Indian subcontinent was under British colonial rule from 1857 to 1947. The impact of economic, political and social exploitation during this period helped the gradual rise of the Indian independence movement to gain independence from foreig n rule. The movement culminated in the formation of the Dominion of India on 15 August 1947, along with the Dominion of Pakistan. We will write a custom essay sample on The Indian Constitution or any similar topic specifically for you Do Not WasteYour Time HIRE WRITER Only 13.90 / page The Constitution of India was adopted on 26 November 1949 and came into effect on 26 January 1950, proclaiming India to be a sovereign, democratic republic. It contained the founding principles of the law of the land which would govern India after its independence from British rule. On the day the constitution came into effect, India ceased to be a dominion of the British Crown. The Indian constitution is the worlds longest constitution. At the time of commencement, the constitution had 395 articles in 22 parts and 8 schedules. It consists of almost 80,000 words and took 2 years 11 months and 18 days to build. In the United Kingdom the office of the Secretary of State for India was the authority through whom Parliament exercised its rule (along with the Council of India), and established the office of Viceroy of India (along with an Executive Council in India, consisting of high officials of the British Government). The Indian Councils Act 1861 provided for a Legislative Council consisting of the members of the Executive council and non-official members. The Indian Councils Act 1892 established provincial legislatures and increased the powers of the Legislative Council. Although these Acts increased the representation of Indians in the government, their power still remained limited. The Indian Councils Act 1909 and the Government of India Act 1919 further expanded participation of Indians in the government. Constituent Assembly [edit] Main article: Constituent Assembly of India The Constitution was drafted by the Constituent Assembly, which was elected by the elected members of the provincial assemblies. [9] Dr B. R. Ambedkar, Sanjay Phakey, Jawaharlal Nehru, C. Rajagopalachari, Rajendra Prasad, Sardar Vallabhbhai Patel, Kanaiyalal Munshi, Purushottam Mavalankar, Sandipkumar Patel, Maulana Abul Kalam Azad, Shyama Prasad Mukherjee, Nalini Ranjan Ghosh, and Balwantrai Mehta were some important figures in the Assembly. There were more than 30 members of the scheduled classes. Frank Anthony represented the Anglo-Indian community, and the Parsis were represented by H. P. Modi. The Chairman of the Minorities Committee was Harendra Coomar Mookerjee, a distinguished Christian who represented all Christians other than Anglo-Indians. Ari Bahadur Gururng represented the Gorkha Community. Prominent jurists like Alladi Krishnaswamy Iyer, Benegal Narsing Rau and K. M. Munshi, Ganesh Mavlankar were also members of the Assembly. Sarojini Naidu, Hansa Mehta, Durgabai Deshmukh, Rajkumari Amrit Kaur and Vijayalakshmi Pandit were important women members. Dr. Bhimrao Ramji Ambedkar is hailed as the prime architect of Indian Constitution The first temporary 2-day president of the Constituent Assembly was Dr Sachidanand Sinha. Later, Rajendra Prasad was elected president of the Constituent Assembly. 9] The members of the Constituent Assembly met for the first time on 9 December 1946. [9] Amendment [edit] Main article: Amendment of the Constitution of India Amendments to the Constitution are made by the Parliament, the procedure for which is laid out in Article 368. An amendment bill must be passed by both the Houses of the Parliament by a two-thirds majority and voting. In addition to this, certain amendments which pertain to the federal nature of the Constitution must be ratified by a majority of state legislatures. As of September 2012 there have been 118 amendment bills presented in the Parliament, out of which 97 have been passed to become Amendment Acts. [21] Most of these amendments address issues dealt with by statute in other democracies. However, the Constitution is so specific in spelling out government powers that many of these issues must be addressed by constitutional amendment. As a result, the document is amended roughly twice a year. 44 The Supreme Court has ruled in Kesavananda Bharati v. State of Kerala case that not every constitutional amendment is permissible, the amendment must respect the basic structure of the constitution, which is immutable. In 2000 the National Commission to Review the Working of the Constitution (NCRWC) was set up to look into updating the constitution. Judicial review of laws [edit] See also: Judicial review Judicial review is adopted in the Constitution of India from the Constitution of the United States of America (see[22]). In the Indian constitution, Judicial review is dealt with under Article 13. Judicial Review refers that the Constitution is the supreme power of the nation and all laws are under its supremacy. Article 13 states that: All pre-constitutional laws, if in part or completely in conflict with the Constitution, shall have all conflicting provisions deemed ineffective until an amendment to the Constitution ends the conflict. In such situation the provision of that law will again come into force, if it is compatible with the constitution as amended. This is called the Doctrine of Eclipse. 23] In a similar manner, laws made after adoption of the Constitution by the Constituent Assembly must be compatible with the constitution, otherwise the laws and amendments will be deemed to be void ab initio. In such situations, the Supreme Court or High Court interprets the laws to decide if they are in conformity with the Constitution. If such an interpretation is not possible because of inconsistency, and where a separation is possible, the provision that is inconsistent with constitution is considered to be void. In addition to article 13, articles 32, 226 and 227 provide a constitutional basis to judicial review in India. [24]